EnglishforResearch.com | EnglishforStudents.com
PhraseBook for Writing English
Read more
Download sample pages
Buy online
English Language Editing
Read more
Sending a text
Prices
Confusing Words
Writing Help from the PhraseBook for Writing Papers and Research in English
English spelling is notoriously inconsistent: George Bernhard Shaw made the point that fish could be written ghoti using the letters gh in cough, o in women and ti in nation. Today, writing on a computer means that many of the problems of English spelling are avoided, as a word processor automatically checks your spelling and can also offer basic grammar advice.
However, many specialized terms may be marked as incorrect by your computer - Microsoft Word for example suggests pesto for postdoc, Tactics for Tacitus, karaoke for keratose, Yeast for Yeats and milkman for myeloma. Furthermore, spelling and grammar checkers may not detect words written correctly but used in the wrong context - principle and principal or causal and casual for example. Misspellings and malapropisms such as Jane Austen's heroin, currant research or the human gnome project may amuse your readers but would detract from your credibility. Below therefore are a number of commonly confused words in university and research writing.
principle - principal
A principle is a rule or law
| Examples |
|---|
| first principles |
| In principle, the two types are... |
Principal means the main or most important
| Examples |
|---|
| the principal cause... |
| the principal investigator... |
A simple way to remember the difference between principle and principal is that principle ends in the same letters as rule.
effect - affect
Effect means result
| Examples |
|---|
| The effect of...was immediate. |
| ...proved to be very effective |
Affect means to influence, especially negatively
| Example |
|---|
| Normal life in parts of Africa is greatly affected by AIDS. |
discrete - discreet
Discrete means separate or distinct
| Example |
|---|
| The process consists of a number of discrete stages. |
Discreet means tactful or secretive
| Example |
|---|
| The reviewers' comments are always discreet. |
Singular and plural forms
Many Greek and Latin loan words in university and research writing have irregular plural forms, and a number of commonly confused singular and plural forms are given below.
data
Although data is the plural of Latin datum, it is commonly used in English as singular. In formal academic language, however, data is still often plural:
| Example |
|---|
| The data are inconclusive. |
criterion - criteria
Criteria is the plural of criterion.
| Examples |
|---|
| The sole criterion in the selection process was... |
| Many criteria were used in the selection process. |
phenomenon - phenomena
Phenomena is the plural of phenomenon
| Examples |
|---|
| This phenomenon can be seen in... |
| Several different phenomena... |
medium - media
Media is the plural of medium
| Examples |
|---|
| The Internet is a new and exciting medium. |
| The media are often blamed for... |
bacterium - bacteria
Bacteria is the plural of bacterium
| Examples |
|---|
| A single bacterium is too small to be seen with the naked eye. |
| While some bacteria are beneficial, others are harmful. |
New paperback edition - PhraseBook for Writing Papers and Research in English
Read more
Download sample pages
Buy online
Writing Help
British and American English
Confusing words
English for Academic Purposes (EAP)
Numbers
Possessive
Punctuation
Quotations
Referring to yourself
Helping researchers publish worldwide
Read about our English Language Editing Services for university staff, graduate students and researchers
University bookstore
Visit our store for university books in English, dictionaries, books on research, teaching and more
Send a link to a colleague
Click here to send a link to English for Research to a colleague
EnglishforResearch.com is a trading name of The Whole World Company Limited
PhraseBook for Writing, Helping Researchers Publish Worldwide, EnglishforResearch.com, EnglishforStudents.com and EnglishforSchool.com are worldwide trademarks and/or service marks of The Whole World Company Limited
Copyright (c) 1996-2007 The Whole World Company Limited, Cambridge, CB7 5EQ, England
Incorporated in England. Company registration number 3241673